Overview
Quick answer
HbA1c (glycated haemoglobin) is a blood test that estimates your average blood glucose over roughly the past two to three months, weighted more heavily toward the most recent four to eight weeks. It does not require fasting.
In Australia, diabetes is diagnosed at an HbA1c of 48 mmol/mol (6.5%) or higher, confirmed on a second test. A result of 42 to 47 mmol/mol (6.0% to 6.4%) is classed as prediabetes, and below 42 mmol/mol (6.0%) is normal. Australian pathology reports show the result in IFCC mmol/mol, often alongside the older NGSP percentage.
HbA1c is not always reliable. Anaemia, iron deficiency, chronic kidney disease, recent blood transfusion, and pregnancy can all push the number in a direction that has nothing to do with your actual glucose control, and it cannot be used to diagnose diabetes in pregnancy at all.
Overview
Key takeaways
HbA1c forms when glucose in your blood attaches to haemoglobin. The more glucose has been circulating, the more HbA1c accumulates, so the result reflects average exposure over the roughly three-month lifespan of a red blood cell, weighted toward the most recent four to eight weeks.
Australian labs report HbA1c in IFCC mmol/mol, the international scientific unit, usually alongside the older NGSP percentage. The two describe the same result: 48 mmol/mol and 6.5% are the same number in different units.
Diabetes is diagnosed in Australia at HbA1c 48 mmol/mol (6.5%) or above, on two separate tests in someone without symptoms. Prediabetes sits at 42 to 47 mmol/mol (6.0% to 6.4%). This diagnostic threshold matches international guidelines; it is not an Australia-specific number.
HbA1c cannot be used to diagnose diabetes in pregnancy. Blood glucose criteria, usually an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), are used instead.
An estimated 6.5% of Australian adults, about 1.3 million people, had diabetes in 2022 to 2024, and roughly one person is newly identified through testing for every six people already diagnosed.
Conditions that shorten or lengthen red blood cell survival, including iron deficiency anaemia, haemolysis, chronic kidney disease, and recent transfusion, can distort HbA1c independently of true glucose control. Ask whether fasting glucose or an OGTT is more appropriate if any of these apply to you.
Point-of-care (finger-prick) HbA1c devices in Australian general practice are for monitoring people already diagnosed with diabetes, not for diagnosing new cases; diagnosis requires a laboratory test.
For people already diagnosed with diabetes, the general treatment target is HbA1c 53 mmol/mol (7%) or below, individualised by your treating clinician, looser for some (older age, frailty, hypoglycaemia risk) and tighter for others.
Hemexa's own preventative target for members without diabetes sits below the diagnostic prediabetes floor, not at it; this is Hemexa's clinical policy, not a universal medical standard, covered later in this guide.
Basics
What is HbA1c?
HbA1c stands for glycated haemoglobin, sometimes written as glycosylated haemoglobin or "haemoglobin A1c". It forms through a chemical reaction called non-enzymatic glycation: glucose circulating in your blood attaches directly to hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein inside red blood cells, without an enzyme driving the reaction.
The higher your average blood glucose, the more glucose molecules attach over time, and the higher your HbA1c reads. Because the reaction accumulates gradually and does not reverse until the red blood cell carrying it is eventually replaced, HbA1c does not swing with a single meal or a stressful morning the way a fingerstick glucose reading can.
Red blood cells live about three months
A red blood cell survives roughly 100 to 120 days before your body replaces it. Because HbA1c accumulates for as long as the cell is circulating, the test captures an average glucose exposure across that whole lifespan, not a single point in time.
But the average is weighted toward recent weeks
At any moment your bloodstream holds red cells of every age, from brand new to nearly 120 days old. Older cells carry more accumulated HbA1c than younger ones, but there are fewer of them in circulation. The consistent finding across sources describing this weighting is that roughly half of your HbA1c result reflects glucose exposure in the preceding month, with a progressively smaller contribution from each month further back. A recent change in glucose control shows up in your HbA1c sooner than a flat three-month average would suggest.
The "glycation gap": people are not identical
Research into individual variation in red blood cell lifespan has found that two people with the same true average glucose can produce measurably different HbA1c results, because their red cells do not survive for exactly the same length of time. This is an active area of research, sometimes called the glycation gap, and it is one reason HbA1c and a person's own glucose meter readings can disagree even when both are working correctly.
This is also why HbA1c needs no fasting and can be drawn at any time of day: it is not measuring the glucose in your blood right now, it is measuring the accumulated evidence of glucose exposure over the preceding months.
Reading your results
How to read your HbA1c report
Australia moved to reporting HbA1c in IFCC mmol/mol as the primary, scientifically standardised unit from 2011, with the older NGSP percentage shown alongside it during the transition. Both units describe exactly the same result; they are not two different tests.
"HbA1c" or "HbA1c - IFCC"
The primary result on an Australian report, in mmol/mol. This is the number this guide, and Hemexa, uses as the reference figure.
"HbA1c - NGSP" or a percentage figure
The older DCCT-aligned percentage, often printed for continuity with historical results or international comparison. It describes the same glycation, converted to a different scale.
Converting between the two
NGSP % = (IFCC mmol/mol ÷ 10.929) + 2.15. For example, 48 mmol/mol converts to (48 ÷ 10.929) + 2.15 ≈ 6.5%, the diagnostic threshold in both units.
Estimated average glucose (eAG)
Clinicians sometimes translate HbA1c into the same mmol/L scale as a glucose meter using EAG (mmol/L) = (1.59 × HbA1c %) − 2.59, the formula from the international ADAG study. It is not routinely printed on an Australian pathology report, and it is an estimate for explaining a result, not a substitute for an actual fasting glucose reading.
If your report only shows one unit, or the two units do not seem to match, ask your GP or the lab to confirm which figure is the diagnostic result; do not attempt to average the two or treat them as separate readings.
Diagnosis
Diabetes diagnosis and HbA1c thresholds in Australia
Diabetes: 48 mmol/mol (6.5%) or above
The Australian Diabetes Society's current guidance, and Australian Prescriber, both use HbA1c 48 mmol/mol (6.5%) as the diagnostic threshold in a laboratory using a validated method. In someone without symptoms, clinical guidance recommends confirming with a second test on a separate day, though the Australian Diabetes Society's own guidance notes an unresolved gap here: Medicare does not fund a confirmatory HbA1c and will accept a single elevated result, which the Society itself describes as a conflict between practice guidelines and Medicare rules.
Prediabetes: 42 to 47 mmol/mol (6.0% to 6.4%)
A result in this band signals higher-than-typical average glucose without meeting the diabetes threshold. It is not a diagnosis of diabetes and does not guarantee you will develop it, but Australian guidance treats it as a signal to discuss risk reduction with a clinician.
Normal: below 42 mmol/mol (below 6.0%)
This range is broadly consistent with international guidelines. The American Diabetes Association's prediabetes range starts slightly lower, at 39 mmol/mol (5.7%), so a small number of results in the high 30s mmol/mol are flagged as at-risk under US guidance but read as normal on an Australian report; the diabetes diagnostic threshold itself, 48 mmol/mol (6.5%), is the same number worldwide.
HbA1c cannot be used to diagnose diabetes in pregnancy. Pregnancy shortens the average red blood cell lifespan, from around 120 days toward 90, and raises erythropoietin, the hormone that drives red cell production. The combined effect is that HbA1c typically falls by 12 to 16 weeks of pregnancy, plateaus around 20 to 24 weeks, and rises again in the third trimester, a pattern that tracks pregnancy physiology rather than glucose control closely enough for the tighter thresholds gestational diabetes needs. An oral glucose tolerance test is used instead. This is a specific, well-established exception, not a general caution.
Beyond diagnosis
Reference range vs a preventative target
The diagnostic threshold answers one question: has average glucose crossed the line that defines prediabetes or diabetes. It does not describe what level a preventative-health member without either condition might reasonably aim for.
A diagnostic threshold is a decision line, not a target
The 42 mmol/mol prediabetes floor and the 48 mmol/mol diabetes floor exist to divide a population into diagnostic categories for clinical decisions. They were not set as the level someone in good metabolic health should be aiming to sit just under.
The evidence below that floor is not a simple "lower is better" story
A large US cohort study found cardiovascular risk rising in graded steps as HbA1c climbed even within the normal range, from a low point around 5.0 to 5.5% upward. But a separate meta-analysis looking at both cardiovascular outcomes and all-cause mortality found a U-shaped pattern instead, with risk higher at both ends: below about 5.0% and above about 6.0%, with the lowest risk sitting in the middle of that band, not at the floor. Read together, the honest summary is that HbA1c well below the diagnostic range is reassuring, and pushing it as low as possible is not established as better.
Hemexa's own preventative target band
Hemexa's own clinical policy targets a band below the diagnostic prediabetes floor: broadly, results at or below 39 mmol/mol (about 5.7%) are treated as the preventative target, 40 to 41 mmol/mol (about 5.9%) as worth watching, and at or below 35 mmol/mol (about 5.4%) as the top of Hemexa's range. This is Hemexa's working preventative policy for a healthy, asymptomatic population, chosen with the diagnostic floor and the graded-risk evidence above in mind, not a published medical guideline in itself, and it should be discussed with your clinician rather than treated as a diagnosis.
A single HbA1c result inside this preventative band is reassuring, not a guarantee, and an unusually low result is not automatically a better one. Trend it over successive tests, alongside fasting glucose and fasting insulin, rather than judging metabolic health from one number.
The wider argument, including why 48 mmol/mol is a clinical decision limit rather than a 95% reference edge, is on the reference range vs optimal range guide.
How common
How common is diabetes in Australia?
6.5% of Australian adults, about 1.3 million people
Had diabetes in 2022 to 2024, per the Australian Bureau of Statistics National Health Measures Survey: 5.6% already diagnosed and 0.9% newly identified through the survey's own measured testing, reported by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare.
Roughly one new case for every six already diagnosed
That 0.9%-to-5.6% split works out to about one person newly identified through measured testing for every six people who already knew they had diabetes, a rough current-day proxy for how much diabetes in Australia still goes undetected.
Risk rises sharply with age, and is higher in men
Close to 14% of Australians aged 75 and over live with diabetes (17% of men, 10.5% of women in that age group). Across all adults, age-standardised prevalence is 7.6% in men against 4.2% in women, making men roughly 1.8 times as likely to be living with diabetes.
Testing volume has shifted heavily toward HbA1c
After HbA1c was added to the MBS for diagnosis, AIHW recorded roughly a 30-fold increase in people accessing diagnostic HbA1c testing between 2014 and 2020, alongside a halving in the number accessing the older oral glucose tolerance test for diagnosis over the same period.
Prediabetes is more common again: around one in six adults
A joint position statement from the Australian Diabetes Society and other Australian diabetes bodies estimates prediabetes, combining impaired fasting glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, and elevated HbA1c, affects roughly one in six Australian adults over 25, more than two million people. Without intervention, a substantial proportion go on to develop type 2 diabetes within a decade.
For how to read a high-risk band on an Australian printout, and how fasting glucose, HbA1c, and an OGTT can disagree, see the prediabetes blood tests guide.
Who should test
Who should consider an HbA1c test?
Age and family history
- Adults aged 40 and over, or 25 and over for some higher-risk groups, per the AUSDRISK screening tool used in Australian general practice
- A parent, brother, or sister with diabetes
- A personal history of gestational diabetes or a baby born over 4.5kg
- A previous prediabetes or high blood glucose result
Higher-risk ethnic background
- Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander background
- South Asian, Southeast Asian, or East Asian background
- Middle Eastern background
- Southern European background
Other recognised risk factors
- Overweight or a larger waist circumference
- High blood pressure or taking blood pressure medication
- Current smoking
- Low physical activity
- Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
These are the factors behind AUSDRISK, the Australian type 2 diabetes risk tool used in general practice; a score of 12 or more is treated as reason to investigate further. Your GP can run a proper risk assessment and advise whether testing is appropriate for you.
Interpretation
When HbA1c results can mislead
The direction of the error follows the mechanism: anything that shortens how long a red blood cell survives gives glucose less time to accumulate on it, and reads falsely low. Anything that lengthens red cell survival gives glucose more time to accumulate, and reads falsely high.
Can read falsely low
Blood loss and haemolytic anaemia
Acute or chronic blood loss, and conditions that break down red blood cells early (haemolytic anaemia), shorten the average lifespan of the cells carrying glucose, which reads as a falsely low HbA1c regardless of true glucose control.
Chronic kidney disease
Chronic kidney disease shortens red blood cell survival, through the anaemia of chronic kidney disease and related changes, which pushes HbA1c down independent of glucose control. Fasting glucose is often used alongside or instead of HbA1c in this setting.
Recent blood transfusion or venesection
A transfusion introduces donor red blood cells that have not been exposed to your own glucose history, and venesection removes a large batch of your own cells, both diluting or resetting the average cell age in your circulation toward younger. Australian Prescriber guidance is to delay HbA1c testing for three months after either event.
Can read falsely high
Iron deficiency anaemia
Correcting iron deficiency has been shown to lower HbA1c even when glucose control has not changed, meaning it was reading falsely high beforehand. Proposed mechanisms include a longer average red blood cell lifespan and increased glycation linked to the oxidative changes that accompany iron deficiency, though the exact mechanism is not yet fully settled in the research; the direction of the effect is well established even where the biology underneath it is still being worked out.
Vitamin B12 or folate deficiency
Like iron deficiency, B12 and folate deficiency are also associated with a falsely elevated HbA1c. Correcting the deficiency is generally expected to bring the result back down alongside it.
Assay-dependent
Some inherited haemoglobin variants
Common heterozygous haemoglobin variants generally do not cause problems for most current HbA1c assay methods, but the effect is method-dependent, and some variants can interfere with specific assays and produce an inaccurate result. If you know you carry a haemoglobin variant, tell your GP or the collecting lab so the right assay method is used.
None of this means HbA1c is unreliable in general; for most people, most of the time, it is an accurate, convenient measure. It means a single unexpected result, in the presence of any of these conditions, is worth a conversation with your GP about whether fasting glucose, an OGTT, or fructosamine (a shorter-window alternative, reflecting roughly the past two to three weeks) would give a clearer answer, rather than acting on the HbA1c number alone.
Related tests
HbA1c vs fasting glucose vs OGTT
These three tests are often confused because they all relate to glucose control, but they measure different things over different timeframes, and Australian guidance uses them for different jobs.
| Test | Measures | Fasting | Best for |
|---|---|---|---|
| HbA1c | Average glucose exposure over roughly the past 2 to 3 months | Not required; any time of day | A convenient long-term picture, and the standard diagnostic and monitoring test in Australia |
| Fasting glucose | Blood glucose at a single point in time, after an overnight fast | Required, 8 to 12 hours | A same-day snapshot; more sensitive to recent days than HbA1c, and unaffected by red-cell-lifespan conditions |
| Oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) | How your blood glucose responds over 2 hours after a standard glucose drink | Required beforehand, plus a 2-hour appointment | Diagnosing gestational diabetes, and confirming a diagnosis when HbA1c cannot be used or the picture is unclear |
Fasting insulin and HOMA-IR are related but distinct again: they estimate insulin resistance, often years before glucose or HbA1c move outside range. See the insulin resistance symptoms guide for that earlier-warning picture, and the fasting insulin and HOMA-IR marker guides for ranges and how to order.
If you have diabetes
HbA1c targets if you already have diabetes
HbA1c targets for people already diagnosed with diabetes are individualised rather than one-size-fits-all. The Australian Diabetes Society's position statement on individualising targets sets out the circumstances that shift the number, reproduced below.
| Circumstance | General HbA1c target |
|---|---|
| Short duration, no cardiovascular disease, on lifestyle alone or with metformin | ≤42 mmol/mol (6.0%) |
| On other glucose-lowering medicines (not metformin or insulin) | ≤48 mmol/mol (6.5%) |
| Requiring insulin | ≤53 mmol/mol (7.0%) |
| Pregnant or planning pregnancy | ≤42 mmol/mol (6.0%) |
| Longer-standing diabetes, or existing cardiovascular disease | ≤53 mmol/mol (7.0%) |
| History of severe or unrecognised low blood glucose | ≤64 mmol/mol (8.0%) |
| Major comorbidities limiting life expectancy | No HbA1c target; focus shifts to avoiding symptoms of high glucose |
These are described as a guide to treatment decisions for your clinician, not mandatory numbers, and a tighter target is not automatically the right choice: the harm from a severe hypoglycaemic event can outweigh the benefit of a lower HbA1c in someone frail, older, or at high risk of it.
The reason a target this specific exists at all: a large UK study following people with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35, 2000) found that each 1 percentage-point reduction in updated mean HbA1c was associated with a 21% reduction in risk of any diabetes-related endpoint and a 37% reduction in microvascular complications such as eye and kidney disease (95% confidence interval 33% to 41%). This was an observational analysis within a trial cohort, not a separate randomised experiment testing that exact reduction in isolation, but it is the evidence base Australian glycaemic targets are built on, and the Australian Diabetes Society's own current guidance cites it directly.
How to order
How Australians get an HbA1c test
| Approach | Best for | Typical cost | Includes HbA1c? |
|---|---|---|---|
| GP-ordered, Medicare-funded diagnosis | Adults assessed as high risk (for example, a high AUSDRISK score) being tested for a new diagnosis | Bulk-billed or low gap when eligible (MBS item 66841, once per 12 months) | Yes, one diagnostic test per year when clinically indicated |
| GP-ordered, Medicare-funded monitoring | People with established diabetes tracking control over time | Bulk-billed or low gap when eligible (MBS item 66551, up to 4 times per 12 months) | Yes, laboratory HbA1c for ongoing management |
| Point-of-care (finger-prick) in an accredited practice | People already diagnosed with diabetes wanting a same-visit result | Bulk-billed or low gap when eligible (MBS items 73812/73826) | Monitoring only; not usable to diagnose a new case |
| GP-ordered, private (no clinical indication) | Preventative or asymptomatic testing outside MBS criteria | Roughly $45 to $65 out of pocket standalone | Yes, as a standalone test |
| Membership platforms (e.g. Hemexa) | Ongoing baseline coverage with trend tracking across many markers, not HbA1c alone | ~$1,199/year (full membership) | Yes; on both the annual baseline and the included six-month retest, among 76–80 signature markers |
Pathology in Australia requires an authorised request from a registered medical practitioner. A HbA1c result used for diagnosis must come from an accredited laboratory; a point-of-care device is not sufficient for that step.
What Medicare funds for a diagnostic or monitoring HbA1c, and when a preventative panel is a private cost, is on the Medicare blood tests guide.
FAQ
Frequently asked questions
- What does HbA1c stand for and what does it measure?
- HbA1c stands for glycated haemoglobin. It measures the proportion of the haemoglobin in your red blood cells that has glucose attached to it, which reflects your average blood glucose over roughly the past two to three months, weighted more toward the most recent four to eight weeks.
- What is a normal HbA1c level in Australia?
- Below 42 mmol/mol (below 6.0%) is normal. A result of 42 to 47 mmol/mol (6.0% to 6.4%) is classed as prediabetes, and 48 mmol/mol (6.5%) or above is diabetes, confirmed on a second test in someone without symptoms.
- Why does my report show two different HbA1c numbers?
- Australian labs report HbA1c in IFCC mmol/mol, the current scientific standard, often alongside the older NGSP percentage for continuity. They describe the same result: convert with NGSP % = (IFCC mmol/mol ÷ 10.929) + 2.15. 48 mmol/mol and 6.5% are the same diagnostic threshold.
- Do I need to fast for an HbA1c test?
- No. HbA1c reflects average glucose over months, not the meal you last ate, so it can be drawn at any time of day without fasting.
- How common is diabetes in Australia?
- An estimated 6.5% of Australian adults, about 1.3 million people, had diabetes in 2022 to 2024, per the ABS National Health Measures Survey reported by the AIHW: 5.6% already diagnosed and 0.9% newly identified through the survey itself, roughly one new case for every six already diagnosed.
- Can my HbA1c be wrong?
- Yes, in specific situations. Anaemia (including iron deficiency), haemolysis, chronic kidney disease, recent blood transfusion or venesection, some inherited haemoglobin variants, and pregnancy can all distort HbA1c independent of true glucose control. If any of these apply to you, ask your GP whether fasting glucose or an OGTT is a better test.
- Can HbA1c diagnose diabetes in pregnancy?
- No. HbA1c is not used to diagnose diabetes in pregnancy, because pregnancy changes red blood cell turnover in ways that distort the result. An oral glucose tolerance test is the standard diagnostic tool for gestational diabetes instead.
- What is the difference between HbA1c, fasting glucose, and an OGTT?
- HbA1c estimates average glucose over months and needs no fasting. Fasting glucose is a single same-day reading after an overnight fast. An OGTT measures how your blood glucose responds over two hours after a standard glucose drink, and is the standard test for diagnosing gestational diabetes. Australian guidelines use different tests for different jobs rather than treating them as interchangeable.
- What HbA1c target should I aim for if I have diabetes?
- It depends on your individual circumstances. The Australian Diabetes Society's individualisation guidance ranges from 42 mmol/mol (6.0%) for someone newly diagnosed on lifestyle measures alone, up to 53 mmol/mol (7.0%) or a looser 64 mmol/mol (8.0%) for someone with a longer history, cardiovascular disease, or a significant hypoglycaemia risk. This should be set with your treating clinician, not chosen independently.
- What HbA1c level should I aim for if I do not have diabetes?
- The diagnostic thresholds mark a decision line, not a wellness target, and the evidence for pushing HbA1c as low as possible within the normal range is not settled; some research finds risk lowest in a mid-normal band rather than at the floor. Hemexa's own clinical policy targets a preventative band below the diagnostic prediabetes floor, broadly at or below 39 mmol/mol (about 5.7%); that is Hemexa's working preventative target, not a universal medical standard, and it is worth discussing with your clinician rather than chasing on your own.
- Can point-of-care (finger-prick) HbA1c tests diagnose diabetes in Australia?
- No. Point-of-care HbA1c devices in Australian general practice are approved under Medicare only for monitoring people already diagnosed with diabetes (MBS items 73812 and 73826). Diagnosing a new case requires a laboratory test from an accredited pathology provider.
- How much does an HbA1c test cost in Australia?
- A GP-ordered HbA1c test is usually bulk-billed or low-cost when it meets Medicare criteria for diagnosis (once every 12 months) or monitoring established diabetes (up to four times every 12 months). Outside those criteria, a standalone private test typically costs around $45 to $65. Membership platforms that include HbA1c on a comprehensive panel of 76–80 signature markers start around AU$1,199 per year.
- Why does HbA1c reflect recent weeks more than the full three months?
- Your bloodstream holds red blood cells of every age at once, from newly made to nearly 120 days old. Older cells carry more accumulated HbA1c than younger ones, but there are fewer of them, so the most recent four to eight weeks of glucose exposure contributes more to the final result than the earliest weeks of the three-month window.
- Is a high HbA1c always caused by diabetes?
- Usually it reflects glucose control, but not always. Conditions that lengthen red blood cell survival, including iron deficiency anaemia, can push HbA1c up independent of true glucose levels. This is why an unexpected result is worth investigating rather than assuming it is diabetes.
How Hemexa fits
How Hemexa can help
HbA1c is a useful long-term signal, but it is easiest to read correctly alongside the tests that catch metabolic drift earlier, and with an eye on the specific conditions that can distort it.
HbA1c on the annual baseline and the six-month retest
Hemexa includes HbA1c on both the annual baseline panel and the included six-month retest, part of 76–80 signature markers, in the Pancreatic Function & Glucose category alongside fasting glucose, fasting insulin, and HOMA-IR.
Reported in IFCC mmol/mol, deliberately not auto-converted
Hemexa compares your HbA1c in the IFCC mmol/mol unit, the current Australian scientific standard. If an imported result arrives in the older NGSP percentage, it is flagged for review rather than silently converted, so a unit mismatch cannot masquerade as a real change in your trend.
Clinical safety review on a diagnostic-range result
An HbA1c of 48 mmol/mol or above is flagged in Hemexa's clinical safety review for follow-up with a doctor, rather than left in a PDF for you to interpret alone.
Genetic context for glucose regulation
For members with genetic testing, Hemexa's DNA layer can surface TCF7L2 gene context linked to type 2 diabetes risk and to both HbA1c and fasting insulin, alongside your results trend, framed as context for a clinical conversation rather than a diagnosis.
Chronic kidney disease is one of the conditions that can push HbA1c down independent of glucose control, and it is worth reading alongside its own marker rather than assumed from a diabetes context alone; see our eGFR and kidney function test guide.
Sources
References
Australian Diabetes Society. (2023). Guidance concerning the use of glycated haemoglobin for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus (May 2023 update). View source ↗
Australian Prescriber. Glycated haemoglobin for the diagnosis of diabetes. View source ↗
Wang, M., & Hng, T-M. (2021). HbA1c: More than just a number. Australian Journal of General Practice, 50(9), 628-632. View source ↗
Cheung, N. W., Conn, J. J., d'Emden, M. C., et al. (2009). Position statement of the Australian Diabetes Society: individualisation of glycated haemoglobin targets for adults with diabetes mellitus. Medical Journal of Australia, 191(6), 339-344. View source ↗
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Diabetes: Australian facts, How common is diabetes, drawing on the ABS National Health Measures Survey 2022-24. View source ↗